Overview of persuasive speaking
How are audiences influenced?I. A persuasive speech tries to create or influence the beliefs or actions of an audience. Your job is to sell a program, to defend an idea, to refute an opponent, or to inspire people to action. The ability to speak persuasively will benefit you in every part of your life, from personal relations to community activities to career aspirations.
II. Several things affect how persuasive a speaker is:
- The speaker’s character. We talk about a speakers ethos (the Greek word for character). Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) said this about a person’s ethos:
The character of the speaker is a cause of persuasion when the speech is so uttered as to make him worthy of belief; for as a rule, we trust men of probity* more, and more quickly about things in general, while on points outside the realm of exact knowledge, where opinion is divided, we trust them absolutely.
*probity: honesty, uprightness
He added that the character of the speaker is the most potent of all the means to persuasion.
In other words, we believe speakers we think are credible. When the topic is one about which knowledge is uncertain or controversial, we are especially influenced by credible speakers.
Audiences rate speakers as credible for a number of reasons, but three important ones are trustworthiness, competence, and enthusiasm. Does the speaker seem kind, friendly, and inviting? Does the speaker seem well-informed, qualified, and skilled? Does the speaker seem honest, bold, forceful, and energetic?
Ethos is the sum of an audience’s judgment about a speakers character and credibility.
- The speaker’s values. We are more likely to be persuaded by a speaker we take to be one of us. Salespeople often suggest similarities between themselves and clients to take advantage of this trait.
- The speaker’s reasoning. We are also persuaded by the quality of a speaker’s reasoning. Speakers who offer documentation and cite authority are more persuasive than speakers who offer only generalizations. To be persuasive, it isn’t enough to tell what you think. You must also tell why you think the way you do and what evidence supports your viewpoint.
Speakers who offer logical reasoning are more persuasive than those who don’t. The keys to logic are clarity (statements are stated with care and precision), consistency (at all points in the speech the same ideas are supported), and proof (claims about ideas and events are supported by evidence).
- Appeals to self-interest.
Arguments are especially appealing when they touch on things that are important to us. There have been lots of attempts to describe what motivates people. One such attempt that has been used widely is that of Abraham Maslow. He said our most fundament needs are things we need physically, such as food, water and oxygen. Once we have those needs met, we be looking for ways to increase our freedom and our safety. We want to be free from fear and harm. When those needs are met, we begin looking for love and affectionwe want to belong. Beyond these needs, we also want to be recognized and to gain status and prestige, and we also want to be true to our own selves and to our ideas about larger meanings.
When planning a persuasive speech, it can be helpful to think about what the audience wants or needs and how your position touches on those wants and needs.
III. What issues are arguable?
Questions of fact, questions of value, and propositions about policy.
- Questions of fact revolve mostly around the interpretation of evidence.
- Questions of value usually involve disagreements about goals.
Worksheet: Fact-Opinion.pdf
- Propositions of policy usually urge changes in the way we normally deal with problems or events.
IV. General principles for speaking persuasively
- Make your arguments logical
- Make your arguments consistent
- Establish your competence to speak on the subject
- Appeal to the needs of your audience
- Anticipate and answer opposing arugments
- Use emotional appeals.
V. A caution: always be ethical.
Do not use ad hominem arguments.
Do not use red herring arugments.
Do not use ad populum arguments.
To argue ethically, it is necessary to respond to the arguments and evidence of opposing sides. It is necessary to use evidence honestly, without distorting it, or exaggerating it, or misquoting it.
It’s important to play fair.
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